Occupational Pesticide Exposure and Respiratory Effects among Mosquito Control Workers in Kota Bharu and Bachok, Kelantan
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11113/jest.v5n2.117Keywords:
hazard, toxicity, risk assessment, respiratory symptoms, lung functionAbstract
Pesticides have been widely used in public health to control mosquito breeding, causing occupational exposures. A cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the relationship between pesticide exposure and respiratory health among 43 mosquito control workers in two vector control units in Kelantan by using purposive sampling. Pesticide risk assessment was based on the Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA). A British Medical Research Questionnaire (BMRC) was used to assess respiratory symptoms and lung function was measured using a spirometer. The cumulative pesticide exposure of the individuals was calculated by taking the average number of fogging sessions per month. The risk level for all pesticides was moderate, except for Actellic 50EC. The most common respiratory symptoms were dyspnea (25.6%), cough (18.6%), phlegm (18.6%), and chest tightness (14.0%). Lung function was normal in 30%, restrictive in 45%, and obstructive in 25%. None of the reported respiratory symptoms and lung function values were associated with cumulative pesticide exposure (p>0.05). Past respiratory illness had a significant relationship with chest tightness (Adj OR=0.009, 95%CI: < 0.001 – 0.834). Age had a significant relationship with phlegm (Adj OR=1.259, 95% CI: 1.010 – 1.569). In conclusion, cumulative pesticide exposure did not relate to respiratory effects. However, mosquito control workers should be given proper training on pesticide handling and the effective usage of PPE to reduce occupational pesticide exposure.
References
Fitzpatrick, C., Haines, A., Bangert, M. Farlow, A., Hemingway, J., and Velayudhan, R. (2017). An economic evaluation of vector control in the age of a dengue vaccine, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 11(8), 1-27.
Packierisamy, P.R. (2017). The cost of Dengue Vector Control Programme in Malaysia. Degree of Doctor of Public Health. University Malaya.
World Health Organization (2009). Dengue; Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control, 3rd edition, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Goel, A. and Aggarwal, P. (2007). Pesticide poisoning. The National Medical Journal of India. 20(4), 182-191.
National Research Council (1994). Health effects of Permethrin-impregnated Army Battle-Dress Uniforms. Washington DC. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.17226/9274.
Othman, M.I., and Hashim, Z. Exposure to Organophosphate and neurobehavioral performance among paddy farmers in Tanjung Karang, Selangor (2018). Asia Pacific Environmental and Occupational Health Journal, 4(2),35-42.
Mohammad, N., Zainal Abidin, E., Zainal Mubarik, N.A., How, V., Praveena, S., and Hashim, Z.(2018). Blood cholinesterase level and its association with neurobehavioral performance due to insecticide exposure among male cocoa farmers in Pahang and Perak, Malaysia. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Biology. (Special Issue),29-41.
Samsuddin, N., Hassan, N.A., Saad, N.W., Abdullah, N.Z., Razali, A., Zakaria, N.A., and Mohamad, M. (2013). Pesticide handling practices and quantitative sensory testing among foggers in Vector Unit, Kuantan District Office. International Medical Journal. 20(1), 2-5.
Mohd Hashadi, M.H., Nurul Izzah, A.S., Siti Marwanis, A., Mohd Firdaus, Y., and Nurul Ainun, H., (2020). Pesticide exposure and neurobehavioral effects among mosquito control. Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 16 (Supp1), 83-94.
Mardiana, I.A., Nur Anis,A., Syahidah, A.M., and Norizan E.(2014). A survey on use, hazards, and potential risks of rice farming activities in Permatang Kerian, Pulau Pinang (Malaysia). International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 2014; 4(10), 1-11.
Manual of Recommended Practice: Assessment of the Health Risk Arising from the Use of Chemical Hazardous to Health in the Workplace 3rd edition. Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH). Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia; 2018.
Occupational Safety and Health (Classification, Labelling and Safety Data Sheet of Hazardous Chemicals) Regulations 2013. [cited 2022 August 4]. Available from https://www.dosh.gov.my/index.php/list-of-documents/regulation/regulations/regulations-under-occupational-safety-and-health-act-1994-act-514/1125-01-occupational-safety-and-health-classification-labelling-and-safety-data-sheet-of-hazardous-chemicals-regulations-2013/file
Nurul Ainun H., Shamsul, B.M.T., and Noor Hassim, I. (2014). Metal dust exposure and respiratory health of male steel workers in Terengganu, Malaysia. Iranian Journal of Public Health Medicine, 43(3), 153-166.
Nurul Ainun H., Shamsul, B.M.T., and Noor Hassim, I. (2015). Respiratory health of male steel workers in the eastern coast of peninsular Malaysia. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 12(5), 321-328.
British Medical Research Council. (1996). Questionnaire on respiratory symptoms. Medical Research Council, United Kingdom.
Musa, R.A., Naing, L., Ahmad, Z., and Kamarul, Y. (2000). Respiratory health of rice millers in Kelantan, Malaysia. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 31(3),575-578.
Nurul, A.H., Shamsul, B.M.T., and Noor Hassim, I. (2016). Metal dust exposure and lung function deterioration among steel workers : an exposure-response relationship. International Journal of Occupational Environmental Health, 22(3), 224-232.
Md. Shakri, S.F., Anua, S.M., Saffuan, S., and Mohamad Asri, A.A. (2020)Endotoxin exposure and lung function among rice millers in Malaysia. Journal of Health and Translational Medicine, 23(Supp1): 31-40.
American Thoracic Society (1994). Standardization of spirometry 1994 update. American Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 15: 1107-36. 20. Damalas, C.A. and Eleftherohorinos, L.G. (2011). Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, and Risk Assessment Indicators. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(5): 1402-19.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Fact Sheet for Pirimiphos-methyl. Retrieved 20 August 2022, from https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/reregistration/fs_PC-108102_20-Jun-08.pdf.
World Health Organization. Cypermethrin. Retrieved 20 August 2022 from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/40017/9241542829-eng.pdf
Mwabulambo, S.G., Mrema, E.J., Ngowi, A.V., and Mamuya, A. (2018). Health symptoms associated with pesticides exposure among flower and onion pesticide applicators in Arusha Region. Annals of Global Health, 84(3):369-379.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Temephos Fact. Retrieved 20 August 2022, from https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=200005E5.TXT
Washington State Department of Health. Mosquito Larvacide Bti. Retrieved 20 August 2022, from https://doh.wa.gov/community-and-environment/pests/mosquitoes/bti#:~:text=Cases%20involving%20human%20health%20effects,Bacillus%20thuringiensis%20products%20(2).
World Health Organization. The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification Geneva: WHO; 2004. Available from:http://nehrc.nhri.org.tw/toxic/ref/WHO%E8%BE%B2%E8%97%A5%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Pesticides : Environmental Effects; 2012. [cited 2020 March 1] Available from:https:www.epa.gov/oppefed/ecorisk_ders/toera_analysis_eco.html.
Pesticide Act 1974. [cited 2020 April 4] Available from : http://www.agc.gov.my/agcportal/uploads/files/Publications/LOM/EN/Act%20149%20-%20Pesticides%20Act%201974.pdf. 29. Joshi, G., Joshi, A.G., Patil, S.N. and Sontakke, A., (2019). Effects pesticides on lung function in farmers of Satara district, Maharashtra, India. Scopus IJPHRD Citation Score, 10(7): 186. 30. Sak, Z.H.A, Kurtulus, S., Ocakil, B., Torelin, Z.N., Yeslinacar, M.I., Akgun, M., and Arbak, P. (2018) Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary functions before and after pesticide application in cotton farming. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 25(4):701-707. 31. Quansah, R., Bend, J.R., Armah, F.A., Bonney, F., Aseidu, J., Yawso, D.O., Adu, O.S., Luginnah, I., Essumang, D.K., Abdul-Rahaman, A., Cobbina, S., Iddi, S., Tersigni, M., Afful, S., Osei-Fosu, P., and Nketiah-Amponsah, E. (2019). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 19(12): 1-18.
Tarmure,S., Alexescu, T.G., Orasan, O., Negrean, V., Sitar-Taut, A.V., Coste, S.C. and Todea, D.A. (2020). Influence of pesticides on respiratory pathology-a literature review. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 27(2); 194-200.
Negatu, B., Kromhout, H., Mekonnen, Y. and Vermeulen, R. (2017). Occupational pesticide exposure and respiratory health: a large-scale cross-sectional study in three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia. Thorax, 72(6), 498- 499. 34. Ye, M., Beach, J., Martin, J.W., and Senthilselvan, A. (2013). Occupational pesticide exposures and respiratory health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.10(12):6442-71.
Wilkins, J.R., Engelhardt, H.L., Rublaitus, S.M., Crawfors, J.M., Fisher, J.L., and Bean, T.L. (1999). Prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms among Ohio cash grain farmers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 35(2): 150–163
Hashemi, N., Mirsadraee, M., Shakeri, M.T., and Varasteh, A.R. (2006). Prevalence of work-related respiratory symptoms in Iranian farmers. Canadian Respiratory Journal. 13(4): 198-202
Zuskin, E., Mustajbegovic, J., Schacter, E.N., Kern, J., Deckovic-Vukres, V., Trosic, I., and Chiarelli, A. (2008). Respiratory function in pesticide workers. Journal Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50(11): 1299-1305.
Sharma, G. and Goodwin J. (2006). Effect of aging on respiratory system physiology and immunology. Clinical Interventions in Aging, (3)1:253-260.
Nurul Ainun, H., Shamsul, B.M.T., and Noor Hassim, I. (2015). Respiratory health of male steel workers in the eastern of Peninsular Malaysia. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 12(5): 321-328.
Nurul, A.H., Shamsul, B.M.T., and Noor Hassim, I. (2014). Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function among male steel workers in Terengganu, Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine, 14(1): 10-18.
Khaled, S.M., Bulloch, AG., William, J.V.A., Lavorato, D.H., and Patten, S.B. (2011). Major depression is a risk factor for shorter time to first cigarette irrrspective of the number of cigarettes smoked per day: evidence from a national population health survey. Nicotine Tobacco Research. 13(11): 1059-1067.
Torres-Duque, C., Maldonado, D,. Pérez-Padilla, R., Ezzati, M., and Viegi , G. (2008). Biomass Fuels and Respiratory Diseases A Review of the Evidence. Proceeding of American Thoracic Society 5(5):577–590.
Damalas, C.A. and Koutroubas, S.D. (2016). Farmers’ Exposure to pesticides: Toxicity, types and ways of Prevention. Toxics, 4(1): 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics4010001
Forey, B.A., Thornton, A.J., and Lee, P.N.(2011). Systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence relating smoking to COPD, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. BMC Pulmonary Medicine.; 11(36): 61 pages.
Siracusa, A., Marabini, A., Folleti, A., and Moscato, G. (2006). Smoking and occupational asthma. Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 36(5):577–84.
Sanctuary, T., Minelli, C, Amaral, A., and Burney, B. (2014). The effect of occupational pesticide exposure on lung function: A systematic review with meta-analysis. European Respiratory Journal. 44(Supp 58).
Griffith, K.A., Sherrill, D.L., Siegel, D.M., and Manolio, T.A., Bonekat, H.W., and Enright, P.L. (2001). Predictors of loss of lung function in the elderly: the Cardiovascular Health Study. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 163(1): 61-68.
Stoleski, S., Minov. J., MIjakoski, D., Bislimovska, D., Atanasovska, A., and Karadzinska-Bislimovska, J. Lung function impairment in construction workers-influence of smoking and exposure duration. Open Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 8(9):406-414.
Zamani, A., Khanjani, N., Bagheri Hosseinabadi, M., Ranjbar Homghavandi, M., and Miri, R. (2021). The effect of chronic exposure to flour dust on pulmonary function. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 27(2):497-503.
Zuskin, E., Mustajbegovic, J., Schacter, E.N., Kern, J., Deckovic-Vukres, V., Trosic, I., and Chiarelli, A. (2008). Respiratory function in pesticide workers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50(11): 1299-1305.
Chakraborty, S., Mukherjee., S., Roychoudhury, S., Siddique, S., Lahiri, T, and Ray, M.R. (2009). Chronic exposures to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides adversely affect respiratory health of agricultural workers in India. Journal of Occupational Health. 51(6):488-497.
